Abstract

Drawing from firsthand experience with the rescue forces at the Chernobyl nuclear plant, the author provides his personal perspective on the current state of deactivation materials and methods. This article critically examines both historical and contemporary deactivation techniques, highlighting the harsh realities of nuclear accident consequences. The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, a haunting expanse of radioactive wasteland, stands as a powerful reminder of the lasting impact of nuclear incidents. While AI-managed robotics may offer some future hope, the environmental and human costs remain overwhelming. As exclusion zones expand, they threaten to reshape our world, encroaching upon habitable land and leaving humanity with less and less space. This review highlights the urgent need for advancements in deactivation technology and a comprehensive overhaul of the nuclear safety framework to address the ongoing and significant threats posed by nuclear accidents. The aim is to ensure that future generations are far better equipped to manage such crises.

INTRODUCTION

The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 stands as the most catastrophic nuclear incident in history, marking a turning point in our understanding of nuclear safety and environmental impact. In the immediate aftermath, efforts were concentrated on halting the accident's progression, containing the ensuing fire, and managing the massive ejection of radioactive substances. These initial responses were followed by years of continued efforts to mitigate the severe environmental consequences of the accident, elevating it to the most catastrophic disaster in human history.

Today, decades later, the shadow of Chernobyl continues to cast a large presence over the field of nuclear safety. Despite advancements in technology and materials, the techniques employed for deactivation during modern nuclear incidents fall significantly short when addressing the scale of contamination and long-term environmental consequences observed in such disasters.

The author compares the challenges faced by special forces in the aftermath of large-scale nuclear incidents and those he witnessed during the Chernobyl rescue operation. This reflection underscores the persistent and critical threats posed by nuclear accidents, emphasizing the need to reevaluate our understanding of their real consequences. The Chernobyl disaster serves as a stark reminder that apocalyptic scenarios are ever-present, and the modern world remains critically vulnerable to such catastrophes. Radioactive accidents - whether caused by natural disasters, human error, or conflict - pose significant risks to humans, the environment, and infrastructure.

This article aims to critically review the current state of deactivation methods, comparing them with those applied during the Chernobyl disaster, and highlighting their insufficiency in mitigating the severe aftermath of nuclear accidents. What does modern technology offer to counter these dangers? Let’s explore what contemporary technology has at its disposal.

DEACTIVATION AND DECONTAMINATION AT A NUCLEAR OBJECT

Deactivation and decontamination efforts at nuclear sites following a radioactive incident involve a combination of various methods to address the radioactive contamination. These methods are applied to both the object compartments and the surrounding areas.

Here is a description of the deactivation procedures used:

When dealing with nuclear incidents, specialized forces follow a well-defined sequence of measures to address the situation effectively. In response to a nuclear accident, special forces are immediately deployed to the affected area to assess the situation, coordinate with civilian authorities, secure the perimeter, isolate the area, and deploy radiation monitoring equipment. Deactivation and stabilization actions are initiated, including shutting down reactors, maintaining cooling systems to prevent overheating, and stabilizing contaminated objects to prevent dispersion. Specialized search and rescue teams locate survivors, evacuate affected individuals, and provide medical triage and treatment based on severity. Radiation exposure management is critical, with monitoring and management of radiation exposure for rescue personnel. Communication and public information efforts include providing clear instructions about evacuation routes, safety measures, and risks, as well as addressing panic and misinformation by dispelling rumors and providing accurate information.
Then, decontamination and deactivation actions begin. In this article, we intend to review these parts of the rescue operation after a nuclear accident:

Initial Assessment and Planning:
Radiation Mapping: Detailed surveys are conducted to map radiation levels in various compartments, identifying hot spots and prioritizing decontamination efforts.
Protective Measures: Safety protocols are established, including the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) for workers and the implementation of controlled access zones to limit exposure.

Mechanical Removal:
Debris Clearance: Special forces use protective gear to remove contaminated debris, soil, and equipment. Manual and remotely operated machinery is used to remove large debris and rubble from the compartments. Robots are deployed to handle highly radioactive materials.
Surface Scraping: Contaminated surfaces, such as floors, walls, and equipment, are scraped to remove the top layers where radioactive particles have settled.

Chemical Decontamination:
Chemical Decontamination involves treating surfaces with specially designed chemical formulations to neutralize radioactive contaminants. This process ensures that all traces of harmful substances are effectively removed, safeguarding both the environment and human health.
Chemical fixatives are sprayed onto contaminated surfaces to immobilize radioactive particles. Contaminated areas are sometimes encapsulated with polymers or concrete to prevent further release of radioactive materials.
Foam containing surfactants and chelating agents are applied to vertical and horizontal surfaces to increase contact time and enhance decontamination efficiency.
After applying decontaminating solutions, surfaces should be thoroughly rinsed with clean water to remove residual chemicals and contaminants.

Waste Collection:
Contaminated water and residues must be collected and treated following strict protocols to prevent environmental contamination. Contaminated materials should be sealed, labeled, and safely transported for proper disposal.

Long-Term Measures:
Further encapsulation and shielding of contaminated areas should be implemented to ensure long-term containment.

Monitoring and Verification:
Continuous radiation monitoring should be conducted to assess decontamination effectiveness, while planning for long-term recovery and rehabilitation of affected areas, including ongoing health monitoring of rescue personnel and civilians.

So, briefly the deactivating actions could be described as a sequence:
MAPPING – PLANNING – MECHANICAL REMOVAL – CHEMICAL DECONTAMINATION –SHIELDING – FURTHER MONITORING

For more detailed information, one can explore resources such as the IPNDV’s comprehensive 14-step model of the dismantlement process or research on MIT’s high-tech methods for verifying nuclear weapon destruction. These studies delve into specific aspects of deactivation and dismantling.

Let's now examine the materials provided by the industry for implementing the deactivation measures.

OVERVIEW OF MODERN INDUSTRIAL DEACTIVATING MATERIALS

This overview highlights a range of modern materials and their specific applications in deactivation practices.

Examples of the industrial compounds:

Detergents and Surfactants:
Product: DECON-90. A biodegradable phosphate and enzyme-free water-rinsible surface-active cleaning agent and radioactive decontaminant.
Manufacturer: DECON Laboratories
Composition: A mixture of anionic and non-ionic surface-active agents, stabilizing agents, alkalis, non-phosphate detergent builders, and sequestering agents in an aqueous base.
Explanation: Decon-90's high pH makes it effective at breaking down organic contaminants, while its surfactants help to lift and suspend particles in water for easy removal.

Chelating Agents:
Product: RADIACWASH™. A chelating agent specifically designed for the decontamination of radioactive materials.
Manufacturer: Biodex Medical Systems.
Composition:

COMPONENT(S)	CAS NUMBER	%W/W
Demineralized water	7732-18-5	85.392
Polyethylene glycol octylphenyl ether (Triton™ X-100)	9002-93-1	6.000
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, tetrasodium salt	64-02-8	5.700
Citric acid	77-92-9	2.900
Benzethonium chlorid (Hyamine™ 1622)	121-54-0	0.008

Explanation: Radiacwash™ binds to radioactive particles, forming a stable complex that can be more easily washed away. Its low pH helps in breaking down contaminants, making them easier to remove.

Acids and Bases:
Product: HOUGHTO-RINSE RTD. An alkaline cleaner is used for decontamination purposes.
Manufacturer: Houghton International Inc.
Composition: Contains Sodium Hydroxide (CAS Number: 1310-73-2)
Explanation: Sodium hydroxide is a strong base that can effectively neutralize acidic contaminants and break down organic materials, making them easier to remove from surfaces.

Oxidizing Agents:
Product: PEROXIGEN™. A ready-to-use 6% Hydrogen Peroxide solution used for decontamination.
Manufacturer: Decon Labs Inc.
Composition: Contains Hydrogen Peroxide (CAS Number: 7722-84-1)
Explanation: Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent that breaks down organic contaminants by oxidizing their chemical bonds, rendering them harmless and easier to clean away.

Foaming Agents:
Product: RADCON® SURFACE DECONTAMINATION FOAM. A foam that aids in radioactive decontamination.
Manufacturer: Environmental Alternatives Inc.
Composition:
Propane (CAS Number: 74-98-6)
Butane (CAS Number: 106-97-8)
2-Methoxymethylethoxypropanol (CAS Number: 34590-94-8)
Lauryl Alcohol (CAS Number: 112-53-8)
Ethylene Glycol (CAS Number: 107-21-1)
Phytic Acid (CAS Number: 83-86-3)
Sodium alpha-olefin sulfonate C14-16 (CAS Number: 68439-57-6)
Explanation: This foam penetrates and lifts contaminants from surfaces. Its surfactants break down oils and greases, while the foam consistency helps to keep the cleaning agents in contact with the contaminated surface longer.

Fixatives and Encapsulating Agents:
Product: ET GLYCERIN SOLUTION (ETGS) or ET6012-06 Waterborne Capture Coating. Applied as an aerosol to deposit a sticky film on all surfaces, preventing the spread of removable contamination.
Manufacturer: Ellis Paint Company
Composition: Used at Hanford Tank Farms and Plutonium Finishing Plant (PFP)
Explanation: These agents form a film over contaminated surfaces, trapping radioactive particles and preventing them from becoming airborne or spreading further.

Radiation Shielding Compounds:
Product: NOCHAR® NFP-10. A polymeric shielding compound for radioactive decontamination.
Manufacturer: NoChar Inc.
Composition: Polymeric blends with fire-retardant properties.
Application: Applied as a coating to surfaces using brushes, rollers, or spray equipment.
Properties: High thermal stability, resistance to flame, and ability to encapsulate hazardous materials.
Explanation: NoChar® NFP-10 provides a barrier that shields against radiation and prevents the spread of radioactive particles, while also offering fire resistance.

Lead Shielding:
Composition: Lead sheets with a density of 11.34 g/cm³.
Application: Lead sheets are cut to size and affixed to surfaces using adhesives or mechanical fasteners.
Explanation: Lead's high density makes it effective at blocking radiation. It is commonly used in various forms, from sheets to bricks, to create barriers against radioactive emissions.
Main Manufacturers:
Mayco Industries. One of the largest manufacturers of lead products in the United States, providing a wide range of lead shielding materials. Nuclead Inc. Specializes in lead-based products for radiation shielding, offering custom fabrication and standard products.

High-Density Concrete:
Composition: Portland cement with heavy aggregates like barite or magnetite.
Density: Up to 5.0 g/cm³ for specialized formulations.
Application: Mixed and poured into forms or applied as pre-cast panels.
Explanation: High-density concrete offers significant radiation shielding due to its mass and density. It is often used in the construction of nuclear facilities to protect against radiation exposure.

Were such materials available during the Chernobyl rescue operation in 1986-87? Were the same methods used? Let’s find out.

The sequence of deactivation measures was similar. Initially, it was necessary to halt the progression of the accident, which was followed by a fire and a significant release of radioactive substances.
Stopping the progression of accidents was extremely challenging because, once they occur, typical procedures often do not work properly and fail to disclose the full situation due to much more complicated circumstances. This holds true for all such incidents, regardless of when they happen.
For radiation mapping and deactivation planning, outdated military devices were used in Chernobyl in 1986. However, the radioactivity levels were so high that more sophisticated and accurate measurement equipment was unnecessary.
Mechanical removal of debris and contaminated surfaces had to be done manually because all machines, including the famous Lunokhod, immediately broke down under such high levels of radioactivity.
The surfactant mixtures used for chemical deactivation were less sophisticated, but even more advanced formulations cannot wash out all contaminants deeply absorbed into the concrete walls, floors, and ceilings.
The primary method for shielding contaminated surfaces in the object compartments involved manually removing the upper concrete layer. Lead sheets were then placed onto the surfaces, followed by the application of new concrete layers.
Huge amounts of contaminated waste, including machinery, soil, felled trees, dead animals, and transport vehicles, were impossible to treat, leaving burial in the ground as the only viable method. However, the sandy soil in that area allowed wind and animals to disturb the deeper burial layers within a year, spreading a significant portion of the buried radioactive materials over a vast area. Approximately 800,000 cubic meters of radioactive waste were removed and buried during the Chernobyl cleanup operations. This included contaminated soil, debris, machinery, and other materials that were heavily irradiated following the disaster.
Despite modern advancements in equipment and materials, the vast scale of nuclear accidents leaves behind such immense quantities of radioactive waste spread over extensive territories that comprehensive deactivation is impossible. This persistent challenge makes the consequences of such accidents unmanageable and profoundly threatening to our civilization.

WHAT ABOUT THE PEOPLE?

Approximately 350,000 individuals were evacuated and relocated from the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone due to the disaster. Around 800,000 people, known as "liquidators," participated in the five-year rescue operation, enduring immense amounts of hard manual labor without adequate personal protective equipment. These liquidators included military personnel, firefighters, scientists, and volunteers who undertook various tasks such as decontamination, constructing the sarcophagus, and monitoring radioactivity. Additionally, the heavily contaminated 1st, 2nd, and 3rd reactors of the Chernobyl Nuclear Plant were controversially restarted from late 1986 to 1987, with hundreds of professional staff working there until the final shutdown of the 3rd reactor in December 2000. This decision, first by the Soviet leader Gorbachev and later by the independent Ukrainian government, was nothing short of criminal. The health and lives of all those involved in the work at the Chernobyl nuclear plant were sacrificed.

In today's modern reality, TEPCO (Tokyo Electric Power Company), the operator of the Fukushima Daiichi plant, reported that approximately 80,000 workers had participated in the decommissioning and cleanup efforts by 2020. This significant manpower was needed despite the Fukushima Daiichi accident being on a much smaller scale compared to the Chernobyl disaster. A large workforce is still required for the mitigation of serious nuclear incidents due to the necessity of manual operations. The crucial reliance on human labor for the deactivation of serious accidents at nuclear facilities remains a challenge due to the lack of machinery and electronic equipment capable of operating at high radiation levels, as well as insufficiently effective protective materials for people, machines, and territory. This limitation reduces the possible working time for both personnel and machinery.

The future direction in the field of deactivation is clear: design of well-protected robots capable of self-functioning in high-radiation environments. The development of a new generation of safety technologies operated by AI, designed to eliminate human errors, and self-operated robotic systems for planning and executing all necessary activities, is the next crucial step in the nuclear industry operations. Through these advancements, the reliance on human labor in such critical processes can be significantly reduced.

WHAT ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT?

While advancements in AI-managed robotics offer careful optimism for our future, allowing us to tackle challenges that once seemed impossible, the environmental effects of a disaster on the scale of Chernobyl paint an even darker picture.

The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, a large and horrendous area of approximately 2,600 square kilometers (about 1,000 square miles), stands as a scary reminder of the catastrophic event of 1986. The boundaries of this abandoned land were drawn to seal off the most profoundly damaged regions, areas soaked in radioactive contamination that resists the passage of time. The Exclusion Zone is a place where the shadow of radiation persists, making it uninhabitable for humans for centuries to come. Some grim estimates suggest that it could take up to 20,000 years for the most contaminated regions to heal, for the invisible poison to fade to levels considered safe for human life. Yet, amid this devastating prognosis, there is a weak hope - certain areas may begin to lose their toxic hold within a few hundred years. Until then, the Zone remains a scary reminder of the severe and long-lasting damage that humanity can cause to the world.

Beyond the hundreds of thousands of shattered human lives, huge areas of uninhabitable land stand as the terrible cost of nuclear accidents. These territories surpass even the most nightmarish visions of a nuclear winter. Instead, the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, free from human presence, has become a surreal and paradoxical sanctuary for contaminated nature.

In the absence of people, it seems that nature has blossomed. Overgrown forests and blooming fields teem with wildlife, painting a picture of unexpected vitality. Animal populations have surged, creating a landscape that captivates the imagination. Yet, this apparent Eden harbors a dark truth. No one witnesses the ageing or suffering of these animals. Their lives are brief; pathological mutations destroy their bodies, causing them to weaken early and become prey to their younger kin. This relentless cycle of life and death explains why old or dead animals remain unseen. It is a short-living paradise, one that holds no place for humanity.

FEARFUL CONCLUSIONS

A future comprehensive nuclear safety framework should include a sophisticated AI-managed robotic system to prevent human errors and ensure consistent monitoring of nuclear facilities for both civil and military purposes. This framework should dramatically reduce the possibility of nuclear incidents, regardless of their causes, to nearly zero.

However, such a comprehensive nuclear safety system does not yet exist. If humanity fails to develop it soon, the next generation will find themselves living in a post-apocalyptic world with vast, uninhabitable exclusion zones like Chernobyl. These zones, though short-living paradise, will be surrounded by impenetrable borders. They will increasingly dominate our maps, claiming larger territories and leaving humanity with less and less space for new conflicts and wars...